What Is MHRA Style?
MHRA (Modern Humanities Research Association) style is the citation standard published by the MHRA, now in its 3rd edition. It is used in UK humanities departments — particularly for history, literature, philosophy, and interdisciplinary studies where a footnote-based citation system is expected.
Dissertation writers most commonly encounter MHRA in:
- History dissertations — archival research, intellectual history, social history
- Philosophy dissertations — ethics, epistemology, philosophy of education
- Literature dissertations — comparative literature, cultural studies
- Interdisciplinary humanities dissertations combining history, literature, or philosophy with another field
If your dissertation is in education, nursing, business, or social science, you almost certainly need APA instead — MHRA is specific to UK humanities programmes.
Like OSCOLA and Chicago NB, MHRA uses footnotes for in-text references rather than parenthetical author-date citations. Every time you cite a source, a superscript number appears in the text pointing to a footnote at the bottom of the page. A complete bibliography appears at the end of the paper.
MHRA vs Chicago NB — What Is the Difference?
| Feature | MHRA 3rd Ed. | Chicago NB (17th Ed.) |
|---|
| Author name in footnotes | First Last (normal order) | First Last (normal order) |
| Author in bibliography | Last, First (inverted) | Last, First (inverted) |
| Publisher location | Required | Required |
| Page numbers in footnotes | p. / pp. used | No "p." prefix |
| Shortened subsequent citation | Author, Short Title, page | Author, Short Title, page |
| Ibid. | Used (with full stop) | Used (with full stop) |
| Article titles | 'Single quoted' | 'Single quoted' |
| Book titles | Italicised | Italicised |
| Primary use | UK humanities | US and international humanities |
Core MHRA Rules
- In-text citations are superscript footnote numbers — no parenthetical author-date
- Footnote entries end with a full stop
- Author names in footnotes: First Last (normal order)
- Author names in bibliography: Last, First (inverted, for alphabetical sorting)
- Article and chapter titles in single quotation marks
- Book and journal names are italicised
- Page numbers use p. (single page) and pp. (range) in footnotes
- Subsequent references: use the author's surname + a shortened title: Shapin, Scientific Revolution, p. 45
Books
Single author
Footnote — first citation
¹ Steven Shapin, The Scientific Revolution (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996), p. 45.
Shortened subsequent footnote
⁵ Shapin, Scientific Revolution, p. 50.
Bibliography entry
Shapin, Steven, The Scientific Revolution (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996)
Multiple authors
Footnote
² John W. Creswell and J. David Creswell, Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches (Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications, 2022), pp. 145–48.
Bibliography
Creswell, John W. and J. David Creswell, Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches (Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications, 2022)
Edited volume
Footnote
³ Thomas S. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, ed. by Ian Hacking, 4th edn (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2012), p. 10.
Chapter in an edited book
Footnote
⁴ Sandra Harding, 'Rethinking Standpoint Epistemology', in Feminist Epistemologies, ed. by Linda Alcoff and Elizabeth Potter (New York: Routledge, 1993), pp. 49–82 (p. 55).
Bibliography
Harding, Sandra, 'Rethinking Standpoint Epistemology', in Feminist Epistemologies, ed. by Linda Alcoff and Elizabeth Potter (New York: Routledge, 1993), pp. 49–82
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Journal Articles
Format (footnote)
Author, 'Article Title', Journal Name, Volume (Year), page range (specific page)
Examples
⁵ Lorraine Daston and Peter Galison, 'The Image of Objectivity', Representations, 40 (1992), 81–128 (p. 95).
⁶ Jun K. Chen and Raj M. Patel, 'Transformational Leadership and Nurse Turnover Intention in Acute Care Settings', Journal of Nursing Management, 31 (2023), 510–25 (p. 512). DOI: <https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-022-01490-3>
Bibliography
Daston, Lorraine and Peter Galison, 'The Image of Objectivity', Representations, 40 (1992), 81–128
Websites and Online Sources
Format
Author/Organisation, 'Title', Website Name, Day Month Year <URL> [accessed Day Month Year]
Examples
⁷ American Nurses Association, 'Nurse Staffing Standards Overview', nursingworld.org, 12 September 2023 <https://www.nursingworld.org/staffing/> [accessed 10 January 2024].
⁸ National Center for Education Statistics, 'The Condition of Education 2023', nces.ed.gov <https://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/> [accessed 15 February 2024].
Theses and Dissertations
Footnote
⁹ Sofia Almeida, 'Transformational Leadership Practices and Nurse Retention in Acute Care Hospitals' (unpublished doctoral thesis, University of Michigan, 2022), p. 34.
Bibliography
Almeida, Sofia, 'Transformational Leadership Practices and Nurse Retention in Acute Care Hospitals' (unpublished doctoral thesis, University of Michigan, 2022)
Using Ibid. and Shortened Citations
| Situation | Format | Example |
|---|
| Same source, same page (consecutive) | Ibid. | Ibid. |
| Same source, different page (consecutive) | Ibid., p. # | Ibid., p. 78. |
| Same source, cited again later | Author, Short Title, p. # | Shapin, Scientific Revolution, p. 60. |
MHRA "ibid." vs OSCOLA "ibid": MHRA uses "Ibid." with a capital I and a full stop (since it starts a sentence in a footnote). OSCOLA uses "ibid" with no capital and no full stop. Don't mix the two conventions in the same paper.
Common MHRA Mistakes
- Using author-date in-text (Harvard style): MHRA is footnote-only — there are no (Author Year) citations in the body text
- Inverted author names in footnotes: footnotes use First Last; bibliography entries use Last, First — not the other way around
- Forgetting p./pp. in footnotes: MHRA uses "p. 45" and "pp. 45–50" (Chicago omits the p. prefix)
- Missing full stop at footnote end: MHRA footnotes end with a full stop (unlike OSCOLA which omits the full stop)
- Forgetting publisher location: always include the city — (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press) not just (MIT Press)
- Quotes around book titles: books are italicised; only article and chapter titles use single quotation marks
- Double-spacing footnotes: footnotes are single-spaced; the body text is double-spaced
Frequently Asked Questions
Do I need both footnotes and a bibliography?
Yes — footnotes alone are not enough. The bibliography provides a complete, alphabetically ordered list of all sources used in the paper. Every source cited in a footnote must appear in the bibliography (with the exception of personal communications and some ephemeral sources, which need only a footnote).
When do I write "Ibid." vs a shortened citation?
"Ibid." applies only when citing the same source in two immediately consecutive footnotes. If any other source appears in between, use the shortened form: Author, Short Title, p. page. Using ibid. when it is not consecutive is a common error that can confuse readers and examiners.
How do I handle multiple works by the same author?
In the bibliography, list all works by the same author alphabetically by title. In the shortened footnote citation, always include the short title to distinguish between them: Shapin, Scientific Revolution, p. 45 vs Shapin, Social History of Truth, p. 30.
Should I use MHRA for my education, nursing, or business dissertation?
No — MHRA is a humanities citation style used for history, philosophy, and literature dissertations. Education, nursing, business, and social science dissertations almost always use APA. Use MHRA only if your dissertation is in a UK humanities department and your handbook specifies it.
Should I use MHRA or Chicago for my history dissertation?
Both are footnote-based and nearly identical in citation format. In UK universities, MHRA is usually the specified style for humanities departments. In US universities, Chicago is the default. Always check your dissertation handbook. If your institution does not specify, either is academically acceptable — just be consistent.