The Modern Language Association citation format using Works Cited and author-page in-text references. The 9th edition introduces the universal "container" system that works for any source type — print, digital, or multimedia. Common in humanities, literature, and language-focused dissertations.
MLA style is published by the Modern Language Association of America and is primarily used in humanities disciplines — literature, linguistics, cultural studies, philosophy, and language arts. If your dissertation is in English, comparative literature, languages, or a closely related humanities field, MLA is likely your committee's required style.
The 9th edition (2021) updated the 8th edition's universal "container" framework while adding clearer guidance on digital sources, accessibility, and inclusive language. It introduced the concept that all sources — regardless of format — can be described using the same nine core elements, just applied in different combinations.
MLA uses an author-page in-text citation system: (Smith 45) rather than an author-date system like APA or Harvard. At the end of the dissertation, all sources appear in a "Works Cited" list, sorted alphabetically.
You're most likely to use MLA if your dissertation is in:
For education, nursing, business, and most social science dissertations, APA is typically expected. Always confirm your required style with your committee chair before drafting your Works Cited.
The 9th edition is built on the idea that every source exists within one or more "containers." A container is simply what holds the source — a journal holds an article; a book holds a chapter; a website holds a webpage. This makes MLA adaptable to any source type without needing to memorise dozens of specific templates.
Each source is described using up to nine core elements, in order:
You only include the elements that are relevant to your source. Skip any that do not apply.
MLA uses the author's last name and the page number — no comma between them: (Smith 45). There is no year in the in-text citation. If you have already named the author in your sentence, only the page number is needed in parentheses.
| Scenario | Format | Example |
|---|---|---|
| One author | (Last Page) | (Chen 45) |
| Two authors | (Last and Last Page) | (Chen and Patel 45) |
| Three or more | (First Last et al. Page) | (Chen et al. 45) |
| Author named in sentence | (Page only) | Chen argues that… (45). |
| No page numbers (website) | (Last) or (Last, par. #) | (Smith) or (Smith, par. 4) |
| No author | ("Short Title" Page) | ("Orientalism" 22) |
| Multiple works, same author | (Last, Short Title Page) | (Said, Orientalism 45) |
| Entire work (no page) | (Last) | (Said et al.) |
Key MLA rule: no comma between author and page — (Smith 45), not (Smith, 45). This is different from Harvard (Smith, 2022, p. 45) and APA (Smith, 2022, p. 45). The year does not appear in MLA in-text citations at all.
Journal articles have two containers in MLA: the article is contained within the journal, which may be contained within a database. You cite both containers if relevant.
Our writing specialists handle any citation style — MLA, APA, Chicago, Harvard, or Turabian.
For websites, the page or article is the source and the website is the container. Always include an access date for websites that are likely to change.
You will cite other dissertations frequently in a literature-focused review. See our dedicated guide to citing a dissertation for more detail.
MLA is often the only major citation style with full coverage of films, TV, and multimedia — useful if your dissertation analyzes adapted or filmed texts.
| Feature | MLA 8th | MLA 9th (current) |
|---|---|---|
| Inclusive language guidance | Not covered | New chapter on bias-free language |
| Accessibility | Not mentioned | Guidance on describing images for screen readers |
| URLs | Include when no DOI | Always include URL or DOI; angle brackets removed |
| Publication medium | Not required | Not required (same) |
| Core elements | Eight elements | Nine elements (location added as explicit slot) |
No — MLA in-text citations only include the author's last name and the page number: (Smith 45). The year appears only in the Works Cited entry, not in the in-text citation. This is one of the most common mistakes students make when switching from APA or Harvard.
Many online sources have no page numbers. In that case, just use the author's last name: (Smith). If the source has numbered paragraphs or sections, you can use those: (Smith, par. 4) or (Smith, sec. 2). Do not invent page numbers or use screen page numbers.
Follow the journal article format in this guide. The two-container approach (article inside journal, journal possibly inside database) is the correct MLA approach for academic journal articles. If you accessed it through a database like JSTOR or ScienceDirect, add the database name as a second container after the journal details.
In the Works Cited, list the first author (Last, First), then "et al." for three or more: Chen, Jun K., et al. In-text, the same: (Chen et al. 45). For exactly two authors, list both: Chen, Jun K., and Raj M. Patel. In-text: (Chen and Patel 45).
Generally no — education, nursing, business, and most social science dissertations default to APA. MLA is the standard for English, comparative literature, and related humanities fields specifically. If you're unsure, your program handbook or committee chair will specify the required style.
Quick test: If your Works Cited entry says "(Chen et al. 1234)" in the text, you have the page number right. If your entry has the year — "(Chen et al., 2023)" — you have accidentally written APA. Double-check the in-text format before submitting.